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Ann Intern Med 1969

The mTOR pathway inhibits autophagy under nutrient-rich conditions, thereby preventing unnecessary degradation of cellular components ( 2.2 Mitophagy in tumor cell physiology Mitophagy plays a critical role in the physiology of tumor cells, influencing their survival, metabolic processes, and interactions with the TME ( 2.2.1 The impact of mitophagy on tumor cell survival Studies have shown that mitophagy helps eliminate damaged mitochondria, thereby preventing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and maintaining mitochondrial function, which is crucial for cell survival ( Conversely, excessive mitophagy triggers catastrophic mitochondrial loss, irreversibly collapsing energy metabolism by depleting ATP-generating organelles and disabling OXPHOS complexes

Furthermore, HCQ exhibits immunomodulatory properties that downregulate the constitutive activation of TLR7 and TLR9 in antigen-presenting cells, and inhibited the cytokine production thereby (174)

Structure-activity relationship for small molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase. J Med Chem , 2017;60(12):5015-5028