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ADH: alcohol dehydrogenase AI: artificial intelligence AILI: acetaminophen-induced liver injury ALD: alcohol-related liver disease APAP: acetaminophen ATF6: activating transcription factor 6 BAD: bile acid diarrhea BAs: bile acids BMDM: bone marrow-derived macrophages BSHs: bile salt hydrolases CAFs: cancer-associated fibroblasts CCA: cholangiocarcinoma CDCA: chenodeoxycholic acid CDI: Clostridioides difficile infection CMA: chaperone-mediated autophagy CMS: consensus molecular subtypes CPT-1: carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 CRC: colorectal cancer CVD: cardiovascular disease DAA: direct-acting antivirals DAMPs: damage-associated molecular patterns DILI: drug-induced liver injury eCCA: extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma ecDNA: extrachromosomal DNA EOCRC: early-onset colorectal cancer ER: endoplasmic reticulum FAK: focal adhesion kinase FAO: fatty acid -oxidation FFAs: free fatty acids FGF: fibroblast growth factor FXR: farnesoid X receptor GLP-1 RAs: glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists GPX4: glutathione peroxidase 4 GSH: glutathione HA: hyaluronic acid HB: hepatoblastoma HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma HO-1: heme oxygenase-1 HSC: hepatic stellate cells IBAT: ileal bile acid transporter IBD: inflammatory bowel disease iCCA: intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma ICI: immune checkpoint inhibition iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase IR: insulin resistance JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase KCs: Kupffer cells LAMP-2A: lysosome-associated membrane protein type 2A LSECs: liver sinusoidal endothelial cells MACEs: major adverse cardiovascular events MAFLD: metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease MASH: metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis MASLD: metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease MetALD: metabolic dysfunction-associated alcohol-related liver disease MIM: mitochondrial inner membrane MPT: mitochondrial permeability transition MRE: magnetic resonance elastography MSI: microsatellite instability NAFLD: nonalcoholic fatty liver disease NHANES: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NITs: non-invasive tests NO: nitric oxide Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 PBC: primary biliary cholangitis PDOs: patient-derived organoids PERK: protein kinase-like endoplasmic reticulum eukaryotic initiation factor-2 kinase PIIINP: procollagen III N-terminal peptide PLR: platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio PNPLA3 : patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3 PPARs: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors PSC: primary sclerosing cholangitis pSWE: point shear wave elastography PV: perivenous PXR: pregnane X receptor RCD: regulated cell death RCT: randomized placebo-controlled trial RIPK: receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase ROS: reactive oxygen species S1PR2: sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 SERCA: sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase SFAs: saturated fatty acids SGLT2is: sodium-glucose cotransport 2 inhibitors SREBPs: sterol regulatory element binding proteins STARD1: steroidogenic acute regulatory protein 1 T2D: type 2 diabetes TAA: thioacetamide TCA: taurocholic acid TCDCA: taurochenodeoxycholic acid TE: transient elastography TFAM: mitochondrial transcription factor A TFEB: transcription factor EB TGR5: Takeda G-protein receptor 5 THR-: thyroid hormone receptor beta TLR: Toll-like receptor TME: tumor microenvironment UDCA: ursodeoxycholic acid UFA: unsaturated fatty acid UPR: unfolded protein response VDR: vitamin D receptor VMP1: vacuole membrane protein 1 We would like to thank Dr

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Gastrointestinal Associated IBS Pathophysiology Alteration in Gut Microbiota Under normal circumstances, mucus epithelium barrier confines microbes to the epithelial surface or intestinal lumen where homeostatic immune responses are induced to maintain barrier integrity and tolerance among commensal microbes